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Due to their consequences on both human and animal health, emerging infectious diseases represent a critical global health concern. The West Nile virus (WNV), a vector-borne pathogen spread by mosquitos amongst birds, can also cause disease in humans and horses. Spain has a long history of local West Nile Virus circulation, and since 2010, equine populations have experienced frequent outbreaks. Astonishingly, only six cases were reported in humans until the year 2019. The 2020 outbreak in Spain displayed a substantial scale with 77 human cases. This was further augmented by the addition of 6 more cases in 2021, concentrated in the Andalusian region of southern Spain. In an effort to ascertain the characteristics of the West Nile Virus genomes found in wild-trapped mosquitoes collected in Andalusia during both 2020 and 2021, this study was executed. Phylogenetic analyses were undertaken on the WNV consensus genome sequences, derived from two mosquito pools. To further elucidate the eco-epidemiology of WNV in Spain, we also compared the obtained genomes with those sequenced from human samples collected during the outbreak, alongside previously sequenced genomes from birds (2007 and 2017), mosquitoes (2008), and horses (2010) in Spain. The WNV genomes isolated from mosquito collections in 2020, as anticipated, exhibited a close genetic relationship to those isolated from individuals affected by the same outbreak. The WNV strain circulating in 2021 was closely related to the 2020 outbreak strain, implying that the virus is able to endure the winter within the local environment. Subsequently, similar outbreaks of this strain may appear again in the future.

Avian influenza outbreaks, featuring H5N8 and H5N1 high pathogenicity viruses (HPAIVs), affected Japanese poultry farms from November 2021 to May 2022. Hemagglutinin genes, positioned within clade 23.44B, are demonstrably divided, phylogenetically, into the following groups: 20A, 20E, and 21E, within these viruses. Three chicken groups were evaluated to determine the infectivity and transmissibility of HPAIVs within this study. The representative strains for the 20A, 20E, and 21E groups, are, respectively: A/chicken/Akita/7C/2021(H5N8)(Akita7C), A/chicken/Kagoshima/21A6T/2021(H5N1)(Kagoshima6T), and A/chicken/Iwate/21A7T/2022(H5N1)(Iwate7T). The fifty percent lethal dose of Akita7C in chickens (10383 EID50) exhibited a significantly lower potency compared to Kagoshima6T (10450 EID50) and Iwate7T (10468 EID50, respectively), approximately seven times lower. The mean death times for Iwate7T-infected chickens stood at 220 days, while those for Akita7C- and Kagoshima6T-infected chickens were at least a day longer, reaching 345 and 330 days, respectively. The highest viral titers were detected in the trachea and cloaca of Iwate7T-infected chickens. A substantially higher transmission rate (100%) was observed for the Akita7C strain in comparison to the two other strains, whose transmission rates were less than 50%. The Akita7C (H5N8) strain’s infectivity and transmissibility in chickens surpass those of H5N1 viruses, according to these data, offering essential insights for crafting effective strategies to prevent and control highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreaks.

The 2019 pandemic marked the start of a crucial role for wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) in monitoring the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2. Now that the methods and supporting infrastructure are finalized, it’s imperative to broaden the utility of this tool across a broader range of pathogens. Leveraging over 500 archived RNA extracts from a WBE program tracking SARS-CoV-2, we analyzed wastewater samples from 11 treatment plants for influenza and norovirus twice a week during the winter of 2021/2022. Influenza A, influenza B, norovirus GI, and norovirus GII were quantified in the extracts via the digital PCR method. Viral loads, in the end, were standardized using NH4-N levels. ex527 inhibitor The efficacy of ammonia normalization in comparing the performance of different wastewater treatment plants is clearly demonstrated in our findings. In the context of SARS-CoV-2 surveillance, the originally prepared extracts contained adequate genomic material to allow for the monitoring of influenza A, norovirus GI, and GII. Infected inpatients’ numbers mirrored the viral loads of influenza A and norovirus GII found in wastewater. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2-linked non-pharmaceutical interventions influenced subsequent shifts in the viral loads of both pathogens. In the final analysis, the expansion of existing WBE surveillance efforts to encompass pathogens in addition to SARS-CoV-2 offers a cost-effective and beneficial strategy for collecting public health data.

Primates, along with a multitude of other animals, harbor foamy viruses (FVs), a stark contrast to humans, where zoonotic infections remain a significant concern. A variety of species showcase the presence of two separate envelope (env) gene sequence clades or genotypes. Our team constructed a simian FV (SFV) clone, including a cassette bearing a reporter gene. This background allowed us to compare the env genes from the SFVmmu-DPZ9524 (genotype 1) isolate with those of the SFVmmu R289hybAGM (genotype 2) isolate. Neutralization of SFVmmu R289hybAGM env-driven infection by SFVmmu-DPZ9524-neutralizing sera was markedly limited. Although SFVmmu R289hybAGM env consistently demonstrated enhanced infectivity and cellular fusion, no variations in the cell tropism conferred by either env were observed across diverse cell types. A549 cell infection by both viruses saw a marginally noticeable, yet not statistically important, increase following the simultaneous deletion of interferon-induced transmembrane proteins (IFITMs) 1, 2, and 3, regardless of any preceding interferon stimulation. Recombinant IFITM3 overexpression exhibited a moderate dampening effect on infection, suggesting a potential for only slight restriction of SFV entry under certain conditions. Our macaque foamy virus env gene clade analysis suggests genotype-specific neutralizing antibody responses, while exhibiting no notable cell tropism disparities; yet, substantial fitness variations might exist amongst individual env genes.

The presence of flaviviruses is ubiquitous across all continents, resulting in a considerable amount of illness and a significant death toll. The invasion of and harm to the central nervous system (CNS) are frequently seen in severe cases of flavivirus infection. Flavivirus entry into the brain is hypothesized to occur through several routes, such as damage to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a critical barrier against pathogens, the unhindered passage of viruses through the BBB, and axonal transport to the central nervous system (CNS) from peripheral nerve systems. Entry of flaviviruses into the CNS is followed by the development of various neurological symptoms, culminating in prolonged neurological sequelae or, tragically, death. Neuropathology, similarly to neuroinvasion, reveals various identified mechanisms, including direct cell lysis, a blockade of the cell cycle, the appearance of apoptosis, and immune-mediated pathologies. We seek to collate current understanding of neuroinvasion and neuropathogenesis mechanisms across a range of flavivirus infections, critically examining the contributions and timing of each implicated pathway.

Wild-type measles virus (MeV) replicates extensively in the lymphoid tissues of both humans and non-human primates, causing an innate response typical of NF-κB and inflammasome activation, without triggering type I interferon. The live attenuated MeV vaccine (LAMV), in opposition, exhibits deficient replication in lymphoid tissue, producing a minimal quantity of detectable in vivo cytokines. We analyzed the inherent responses of primary human monocyte-derived macrophages and phorbol myristic acid-activated monocytic THP-1 cells (M0) differentiated into inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) profiles 24 hours following WT MeV and LAMV infection. LAMV displayed a superior capacity to infect macrophages compared to WT MeV, although the viral yield from LAMV-infected macrophages was lower than that from WT MeV-infected macrophages. Both strains stimulated the release of NF-κB-activated cytokines, specifically IL-6 and TNF, and inflammasome factors IL-1 and IL-18, but no pyroptosis was evident. Examination of THP-1 cells lacking inflammasome components NOD-like receptor pyrin (NLRP)3, IFN-inducible protein 16 (IFI16) or absent in melanoma (AIM)2 and their associated adaptor apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC) and effector caspase 1, unveiled a dependence of IL-18 production on NLRP3, ASC, and caspase 1 functions. Although M1 cells generated IL-1 without ASC or caspase 1, this indicated alternative avenues for MeV-stimulated pro-IL-1 processing. Macrophage exposure to both LAMV and wild-type MeV in vitro elicits an inherent response including IL-6 and TNF production, along with NLRP3 inflammasome activation for the release of IL-1 and IL-18. Attenuation of LAMV reduces the production of infectious virus, without compromising its capability to infect macrophages or to elicit innate immune responses.

From its origin in North and Central America, the raccoon (Procyon lotor), a carnivore, has undergone a gradual introduction into Asian and European countries, including Italy. As a significant carrier, this organism harbors various endoparasites, including protozoa and helminths, some with zoonotic potential. The investigation of endoparasites in the non-indigenous raccoon population of Central Italy was the primary goal of this study. Sixty-two raccoons were examined necroscopically, sixty of these captured and euthanized, and two found deceased, by the competent local authorities. A comprehensive parasitological assessment was carried out on the carcasses, encompassing coprological techniques (macroscopic examination of the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, trachea, and heart, including the Flotac, Baermann tests, and immunofluorescence for Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp.), investigation of respiratory/urinary capillariosis and artificial digestion for the detection of Trichinella spp.